Air raid on Pearl Harbor

December 7, 1941, an early Sunday morning on the American naval base Pearl Harbor. Oahu on Hawaii. It looked like the beginning of every other day in this tropical paradise. The crews of the many ships and men on the military air fields were preparing for the coming flag ceremony and Sunday services. At 07:55, the silence was rudely shattered by the roar of 184 aero engines. Ninety Nakajima B5N bombers carrying bombs and torpedoes attacked the battlecruisers moored side by side; 51 dive bombers targeted the air fields Hickam, Wheeler and on Ford Island, 43 Mitsubishi A6M fighters (Zeroes) provided air cover for the bombers and strafed airfields.

The damaged battle cruisers USS Tennessee and USS West Virginia. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

After this first wave of Japanese aircraft had dropped their bombs and torpedoes, they disappeared but a second wave appeared immediately. This consisted of another 54 bombers and 80 dive bombers, covered by 36 Zeroes. All these aircraft attacked targets which had been missed by the first wave or hadn't been chosen as such yet.

Explosion of the forward magazine of USS Arizona. Source: Wikipedia

The Japanese air raid hardly lasted two hours but the effect was terrible. The battlecruiser USS Arizona had exploded, belching thick clouds of black smoke and had sunk in the shallow water. Numerous vessels were on fire and survivors jumping into the water were threatened by floating and burning oil. One of the battle cruisers had capsized, trapping part of the crew inside the hull. Another two battlecruisers had sunk and four others were damaged. Furthermore, three cruisers, three destroyers and a mine layer were sunk or severely damaged.

USS Arizona on fire after the explosione. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

Half of the American aircraft had been destroyed on the ground and the few fighters that did manage to take to the air had downed several enemy bombers before being shot down themselves. Most of the Consolidated PBY Catalina sea planes had been destroyed at their base by the Japanese attack. The raid claimed over 2,000 dead and 1,100 injured. The explosion on USS Arizona alone had claimed 1,177 lives.

Destruction on the sea plane base near Kaneohe. Source: Wikipedia

During the raid, the Americans recovered fast and fought back fiercely. Guns and ammunitions stores were broken open and Japanese aircraft were subjected to fire from all kinds of weapons. In total, 29 Japanese aircraft were shot down, claiming the lives of 55 pilots and crew members. A very small number, compared to that of the overwhelmed Americans. In the end, the Japanese had scored an immense tactical victory over Oahu.

The damaged battlecruiser USS California. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

The attack was a complete surprise in the sense that Japan hadn't declared war on the United States yet. That declaration came a few hours after the attack. That very same day, America declared war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the Americans and the US in turn declared war on the Axis powers, turning the war into a global conflict and dragging the Americans into the war in Europe. This made the attack on Pearl Harbor into one of the major turning points in the Second World War.

Japan was hit hard by the collapse of the global economy and the nationalists and the hawks gained the upper hand. Manchuria in northeastern China was occupied in 1931 and in 1937, Japanese armies invaded central China. The country turned to the League of Nations for help but this organization imposed no sanctions on the aggressor. Only a memorandum was issued, condemning the Japanese move. Consequently, Japan withdrew from the League.

Japanese troops advancing in Manchuria, China in 1932. Source: Collection Peter Kimenai, TracesofWar.nl

In the early 30s, the United States faced economic crisis, emerging totalitarian regimes and a growing threat of war in Europe and Asia. The Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected president in 1932 and endeared himself immediately by his way of tackling the crisis. He initiated major public projects such as building dams and roads. This decreased unemployment and the economy recovered. As a result, Roosevelt scored an easy victory in the 1936 elections.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected President of the United States in 1932. Source: Wikipedia

After Japan had invaded China again in 1937 the US, which had wide spread interests in China, imposed an embargo on the delivery of aircraft parts to Japan. Many more of these would follow. The most important one was imposed after the capitulation of France in 1940. A direct result of this was that the French Vichy-minded government allowed Japanese troops to enter French Indo-China and Siam was forced to accept Japanese protection. Consequently, the US and the Netherlands scaled down their oil export to Japan. Furthermore, the Americans imposed embargos on scrap iron, steel and aviation fuel.

Because of all this, Japan faced grave problems. Coal could be fetched from China but for modern war fare, crude oil is essential. In 1939, Japan imported 90% of its oil from the US. The nearest oil fields however were located in the Dutch East-Indies and British Malaysia. Moreover, the European colonies in Southeastern Asia had more import raw materials, indispensable for the war industry, at their disposal such as rubber, nickel and tin. This strongly kindled Japanese expansionism.

In the fall of 1940, elections were held in the US which Roosevelt won by a narrow margin. Americans didn't wish to send millions of soldiers to Europe again as they had done in the First World War. President Roosevelt, his assistant Harry Hopkins and his most important military advisors, chief of staff General C. Marshall and Admiral Stark, did understand that war against Germany and Japan was inevitable if the US was to maintain her freedom and prosperity.

Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall. Source: Wikipedia

After all, these achievements depended on free trade with free trade partners and suppliers of raw materials and would be completely undermined by the upcoming military and totalitarian regimes that couldn't be stopped by the British alone. The British therefore did frequently ask the US for help. However, Franklin Roosevelt could only win the elections by promising the American population that the country wouldn't get involved in a foreign war once more unless she was attacked herself. In order to wage a justified war against Japan, it was paramount that Japan would fire the first round.

Admiral K. Nomura (left) and diplomat S. Kurusu after having discussed the American trade embargo in the White House. Source: Collection Peter Kimenai, TracesofWar.nl

The Japanese knew that because of Roosevelt's reelection, the embargoes wouldn't be lifted. In Tokyo, fierce debates raged between militant and moderate policy makers. A part of the Japanese military and political top advocated a speedy attack on the Dutch East-Indies and British Malaya. Many of them however deemed it highly improbable the US would remain neutral after such a victory. The moderate politicians saw ample opportunities for political solutions. The attack on the European colonies was postponed but army and navy were to make preparations for a possible war against the USA.

In July 1941, Japan occupied French Indo-China entirely. This weakened the diplomatic position of the Japanese in regard to the negotiations about lifting the oil embargo even further. After all, the Allies were afraid Japan would strike out from French Indo-China toward the East-Indies and Malaysia and therefore, the American, British, Canadian and Dutch governments decided to cut off the oil export to Japan altogether. The negotiations were doomed to fail and war seemed inevitable.

Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto was the architect of the Japanese air raid on Pearl. He had studied at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts between 1919 and 1921 and he had held an official function at the Japanese Embassy in Washington DC between 1926 and 1928. This meant he had seen a lot of the United States and he was impressed by the economic and potential might of the country. Consequently he belonged to the moderate policy makers when he was promoted to Admiral and commander-in-chief of the Japanese navy on August 30, 1939. His sense of duty towards the Emperor took priority over everything else, he did also think war against the US was inevitable.

Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, the architect of the attack. Source: Wikipedia

He came up with the plan to overwhelm the Dutch East-Indies and British Malaysia in a number of speedy attacks. As he was also convinced the Americans would come to the rescue of their Allies, he coined the idea to eliminate the American Pacific Fleet first. In this way, Japan could secure the raw materials from the European colonies and reinforce army and navy before America had recovered from the blow.

Early January 1941, Yamamoto ordered a small group of staff officers to make a study into a surprise attack on Pearl. In this he was inspired by the successful British raid on the Italian naval base Tarente. The British wrote history when on November 11, 1940, they managed to destroy one Italian battlecruiser and severely damaged two others, using 21 old Swordfish airplanes. The British attacked the Italian fleet in two waves. In late May 1941, Japanese experts visited Tarente. The Italians had conducted a painstaking investigation and were able to provide the Japanese with valuable information. The plans were developed further by Captain M. Genda, a specialist of the Japanese naval air service.

On the south coast of the most southern Japanese home island, Kyushu, in Kagoshima Bay, there was an island with the same geographical lay out as Ford Island in Pearl Harbor. Japanese pilots were trained here up to the highest level to drop torpedoes and bombs on stationary targets. Torpedoes were made suitable for use in shallow water by fitting stabilizing fins and rudders. Even before Admiral Yamamoto was given the green light for his attack, he had seen to it that his air armada was ready for it. But the light was kept red by political advocates of a diplomatic solution and wary members of the navy command.

Generaal Tojo`s war cabinet. Source: Collection Peter Kimenai, TracesofWar.nl

Meanwhile, negotiations between Japan and the US progressed increasingly tedious. The Japanese Secretary of War, General Hideki Tojo, advocated a quick attack on the Allies. He triggered a cabinet crisis by forcing the moderate prime minister, Prince Konoye, to step down. According to the Japanese constitution, ministers responsible for defense, were appointed by the Emperor himself. Therefore, these men could always rely on the supervision and deployment of the armed forces. Under threat of a possible intervention by the military, Prince Konoye submitted his resignation and that of his cabinet to Emperor Hirohito who accepted it on October 16, 1941. Konoye's seat was taken by General Tojo himself who formed his own cabinet and in addition to his function as prime minister remained in charge of the Ministry of War.

Vice-Admiral Nagumo led the attack on Pearl Harbor. Source: http://www.worldwar2database

Yamamoto had continued the preparations for the attack on Pearl in the meantime. He had selected vice-Admiral Chuichi Nagumo to lead the battle fleet to Hawaii. In order to increase the damage to the American fleet, attacks by five A-class midget submarines were planned. These small two-man subs would be carried to the area around Oahu by large submarines from where they would attempt to penetrate into the shallow harbor and launch their torpedoes at the battleships.

On November 22, the vessels of Nagumo's battle fleet assembled in the desolate Hittokappu Bay on the east coast of Etorofu island, the southernmost part of the Kurils. The fleet consisted of the carriers Akagi, Kaga, Soryu, Zuikaku and Shokaku which carried 414 aircraft between them. The six carriers were escorted by the battlecruisers Hiei, (1914) and Kirishima (1915) and the two heavy cruisers Tone and Chikuma. Destroyer Squadron 1, consisting of the light cruiser Abukuma (1923) and the nine destroyers Akigumo, Shiranuhe, Arare, Kagero, Kasumi, Tanikaze, Hamakaze, Isokaze and Urakaze were to track down and destroy possible enemy submarines. Furthermore, the battle fleet consisted of three submarines which would patrol the selected route and eight fleet tankers. Three days later, the five submarines I-16, I-18, I-20, I-22 and I-24 departed from the port of Kure in the southwest of Japan. Each of these carried an A-class midget sub. One day later, November 26, Nagumo's battle fleet set sail as well.

The Hiryu was one of the six carriers of Nagumo`s battle fleet. Source: http://worldwar2database

Carriers Kaga and Zuikaku on their way to Hawaiï. Source: http://worldwar2database

On November 29, an Imperial conference was held in Tokyo by the ministers and leading politicians and military. The majority, headed by General Tojo, advocated war against the United States, Great Britain and the Netherlands. The next day, the participants decided to submit this to the Emperor who silently gave his permission on December 1. Next day vice-Admiral Nagumo, with his battle fleet somewhere between the Kurils and Hawaii, received the message: 'Climb Mount Niitaka.' This was the green light Nagumo, and Yamamoto had been waiting for. The Japanese air raid on Pearl Haror was on.

The previously selected course of the battle fleet ran eastwards along the 43rd latitude. This route was chosen because it was often foggy at that time, reducing the chance of discovery. On December 6, the Japanese fleet changed course to the south, steaming straight for Hawaii.

Pearl Harbor is a natural harbor near the Hawaiian capital Honolulu on the island of Oahu. The entrance had already been widened by the Hawaiians themselves in the 18th century. The Americans used the islands as a layover for merchant shipping and whale hunting and they also sent missionaries. As early as 1841, Hawaii became a naval base. In 1869 the harbor was deepened further. At the time, Hawaii was still an independent state ruled by a king but he accepted American protection in exchange for the use of the harbor. From 1887 on, the harbor was leased and made deeper. Thereafter, the harbor was made more accessible and deeper still.
At the end of the 19th, beginning of the 20th century numerous installations were constructed in the harbor such as housing accommodation, quays for loading and unloading and cranes. In this period, a unit of the American was stationed on the base. Up to the Second World War, the US Navy and Army continued expanding Pearl Harbor by buying land, constructing air fields and building floating dry docks, hangars and barracks.

Pearl Harbor before the attack. Source: Wikipedia

The narrow entrance to the harbor. Source: http://www.Ibiblio

In 1933, a large exercise was held assuming Pearl Harbor was being attacked by aircraft and ships. After this drill, the Americans had to face the fact that the harbor was almost impossible to defend. The entrance to the harbor could be blocked by the sinking of a single ship and the mountains in the hinterland offered ample protection to aircraft to reach the harbor over land practically unnoticed. From the harbor, it took three hours to reach the open sea so escaping vessels could easily be intercepted. Yet in May 1940, President Roosevelt chose to station the US Pacific Fleet in Pearl. The commander of this fleet at the time, Admiral James Richardson disagreed because he thought the fleet to be too vulnerable on the naval base. In February 1941, during a reorganization of the navy command initiated by Roosevelt, he was replaced by Rear-Admiral Husband E, Kimmel who was promoted to Admiral and Commander-in-Chief of the Pacific Fleet for the occasion. Lieutenant commander Walter C. Short was appointed commander of the army on Hawaii.

Admiral Husband E. Kimmel. Source: Wikipedia

Lieutenant General Walter C. Short. Source: Wikipedia

Admiral Kimmel and Lieutenant-general Short assumed that the Japanese would first carry out their attacks on the Dutch East-Indies, British Malaysia and eventually on the American colony on the Philippines. Kimmel reckoned with an air raid as well though so he ordered large quantities of defensive material such as torpedo nets, radar and AA artillery. Delivery of all this hardware progressed slowly though. Installing the radar station stations was subsequently thwarted by nature preservationists. Short was more afraid of sabotage by agents infiltrating into the Japanese community on Oahu than an air raid. Therefore he had ordered in November 1941, all aircraft be parked in the center of the airfields, wing tip to wing tip in order to be guarded much easier. The number of reconnaissance missions was reduced as both navy and army suffered shortages of aviation fuel. This was caused by the numerous exercises that had been held for fighters and bombers.

In November 1941, Kimmel wanted to organize a massive fleet exercise again but this could not be as a large part of the fleet was called back to the west coast of the US for training and maintenance. Subsequently, Kimmel wanted to organize an alternative exercise in which aircraft were to approach and attack the harbor over land. This was exactly the route Admiral Nagumo would take two weeks later. The attack was cancelled prematurely under pressure from the Navy Command in Washington DC, consisting of Rear-Admiral Ingersoll and Admiral Stark.

USS Arizona in dry dock in Pearl Harbor,1932. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

Throughout this time, negotiation between Tokyo and Washington continued but towards the end of November they grew more and more bitter and an agreement seemed further away than ever. The American Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Cordell Hull, was in charge of the last phase of the talks. The United States submitted a dozen demands, including retreating from China, French Indo-China and severing the ties with Germany and Italy. The Americans would lift the oil embargo in exchange. The Japanese could obviously not meet these demands without losing face and were powerless diplomatically. Thereupon the Japanese decided, as mentioned before, to launch the war on November 29. In order to keep the surprise attack on Pearl secret, the Japanese dragged the negotiations on until December 7. That day, 10:32 local time in Washington DC, Franklin D. Roosevelt read the Japanese message that Japan did not declare war on the United States but she had reached the conclusion further negotiations were futile. Hawaiian time at that moment was 05:32.

Beginning at 00:42 on December 7, 1941, the five Japanese mother subs launched their midgets between 5 and 13 miles from the entrance to Pearl Harbor. Around 04:10, the destroyer USS Ward (DD-139) started a search for a submarine that had been spotted by the patrolling mine sweeper USS Condor (AMC -14). At 06:30, watchers aboard the Ward saw the small conning tower of a submarine. Fifteen minutes later, the destroyer opened fire on the unknown sub. This 10.2cm shell was the first shot in the war between the US and Japan. The next shell struck the conning tower. Thereafter, the Ward dropped four depth charges over the sinking sub and reported the incident to Fleet HQ in Pearl Harbor. The crew of the old destroyer Ward consisted of young reservists from Minnesota and it was the first patrol of her commander, Lieutenant Commander W.W. Outerbridge. Partly because of this, the report from USS Ward was hardly taken seriously.

At 06:05, vice-Admiral Nagumo launched his first attack wave from the six carriers, steaming at 205 nautical miles from Pearl. One hour later, this formation was spotted on the screen of the US Army SCR-270 radar station at Opana Point in the extreme north of Oahu. The operators reported their finding to the new and not yet fully operational Intercept Center. A young and inexperienced officer, Lieutenant K.A. Tyler took the message but mistook it for the formation of the 12 B-17 bombers he was expecting.

Overview of the attack. Source: Roger Paulissen, TracesOfWar.com

Around 07:55, the first Japanese attack wave, commanded by Captain M. Fuchida reached Pearl Harbor. The 40 vulnerable Nakajima B5N bombers (Allied code name Kate) equipped with torpedoes, initiated the attack and took advantage of the still complete surprise. This was confirmed by Fuchida who radioed the Akagi at 07:53: 'Surprise is total.' There was great disappointment among the pilots when they couldn't find the carriers but they recovered quickly and attacked the vessels moored at Battle Ship Row. Five minutes later, Rear-Admiral P. Bellinger radioed from his staff HQ on Ford Island in plain language: 'Air raid Pearl Harbor, this is no drill.'

Start of the attack, seen from a Japanese cockpit. Source: Wikipedia

The Japanese torpedo aircraft placed 19 hits, many on the battlecruisers. These planes were followed immediately by the 50 Kate's armed with bombs. They scored 29 hits of which 8 on USS Arizona (BB-39) At 08:10, one of the bombs penetrated the forward magazine of the vessel, triggering an immense explosion. The vessel was partly blown out of the water, the forecastle was ripped apart and she sank in the 30 feet deep water. Most of the crew members, including squadron commander Rear-admiral I. Kidd and Commander Captain F. van Valkenburgh lost their lives. Chunks of metal from the cruiser rained down like hail around the ship and an immense fire broke out that spread to the maintenance vessel USS Vestal (AR-4) moored alongside her.

USS West Virigina struck by the first Japanese torpedoes. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

The battlecruiser USS Oklahoma received five torpedo hits of which two on the water line. This caused the vessel to roll over and more than 450 crew members were trapped inside her hull. The battlecruiser USS Nevada (BB-36) was able to make steam and made a desperate attempt to leave the harbor. The battlecruisers USS California (BB-44) and USS West Virginia (BB-46) and USS Tennessee (BB-43) escaped with two hits by bombs each. Within 15 minutes after the start of the attack, numerous vessels were ablaze and the sky over Pearl turned black with oily smoke.

The crew of USS California abandons the burning and sinking vessel. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

The 51 Aichi D3A dive bombers (Allied code name Val) meanwhile attacked the seaplane base near Kaneohe and the army air fields Wheeler and Hickam whereby the neatly, parked aircraft, wing tip to wing tip, were sitting targets. The Zero fighters, meant to provide cover to the other Japanese aircraft soon discovered that there was only light resistance and so they went into the attack themselves. They strafed aircraft and barracks with their 20mm cannon and caused mayhem and confusion.

The attack by the midget subs continued meanwhile and one of them managed to slip into the harbor during the air raid. She was discovered however at 08:17 by the destroyer USS Helm (DD-388) and chased off by gunfire. Later, the midget ran aground several times attempting to leave the harbor. The damaged vessel drifted off and washed up a little later in Waimanalo Bay on the east coast of Oahu. The commander of the sub, Lieutenant K. Sakamaki was accosted on the beach by American soldiers and became the first Japanese PoW in American custody of the Second World War. A second midget managed to slip into the harbor as well but was spotted around 08:30 and was fired upon by the seaplane tender USS Curtiss (AV-4) and the departing destroyer USS Monaghan (DD-354). The midget launched her torpedoes on both vessels but missed her targets. At the same moment, she was hit by a 12cm shell from the Curtiss and a little later she was rammed by the Monaghan causing her to sink.

At 07:15, Nagumo launched his second attack wave commanded by Lieutenant pilot S. Shimazaki. This group consisted of 54 Kate's, 80 Val's and 36 Zeroes. The bombers attacked the air fields Wheeler, Ewa Mooring Mast, Kaneoha, Hickam and Bellows and destroyed aircraft and hangars still standing. The dive bombers dropped their lethal cargo on the battlecruisers and the naval installations on Ford Island, focusing on the departing USS Nevada. In order to prevent the vessel from sinking and so blocking the harbor entrance, she was beached at Waipoi Point. The battlecruiser USS Pennsylvania (BB-38) was damaged in dry dock but suffered little damage. The dock flooded however and the burning oil floating on the water caused the destroyers USS Cassin (DD-372) and Downes (DD-375) to burn out completely.

During the first attack wave, nine Japanese aircraft had been shot down. Of the second group, 20 aircraft didn't return to the carriers. Vice-admiral Nagumo realized that the Americans had recovered faster than he had expected and he abstained from launching the third wave. Captain Fuchida urged Nagumo to launch the third wave anyway but the vice-admiral didn't wish to take the risk of losing still more aircraft and was satisfied with the achieved results up till then. The battlefleet returned to Japan, leaving a devastated, burning and smoking Pearl Harbor behind.

The air raid on Pearl Harbor had lasted less than two hours but had caused enormous devastation. The Americans lost 2,395 dead including 54 civilians. Furthermore, there were 1,178 injured, many of them having contracted severe burns. Out of the 402 aircraft on Oahu, 188 had been destroyed and 159 damaged. Of the 33 PBY Catalina seaplanes, 24 were destroyed and 6 damaged to such an extent, they were beyond repair. The 12 B-17 bombers, flying in from the mainland were unarmed to save weight. Around 08:00 they were attacked by Japanese aircraft and hit by friendly AA fire. Most of them managed to land safely but were damaged by bullets and AA shells.

Overview of the attack with the targets hit. Source: Roger Paulissen, TracesOfWar.com

USS Arizona had received no less than four direct and three indirect hits by bombs with fatal consequences. The explosion of the forward magazine had caused the destruction of the vessel but had also claimed 1,177 dead and numerous injured. The fire that subsequently broke out burned for two days. Later on, the entire superstructure was removed and the hull is still on the bottom of the harbor with all dead still aboard.

USS Oklahoma has capsized. On the left almost unscathed USS Maryland. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

USS Oklahoma received five hits by torpedoes and had capsized, trapping 461 crew members inside the hull. During the following days, only 32 of them could be rescued. The others drowned in the slowly flooding hull that could not be cut open by blow torches in time because of the thick armor. Raising the vessel because a matter of honor for the navy that wanted to show that even this vessel could be put back into service. An enormous salvage operation was started and they succeeded in pulling the wreck upright. It had been so severely damaged though that repair wasn't profitable. The wreck was dismantled later.

USS California and West Virginia were both at anchor on the outer ring of Battleship Row and were struck by two and six torpedoes respectively. The California received one and West Virginia two more bomb hits. Both vessels caught fire and sank. As the harbor was only 30 feet deep, the superstructure of the vessels remained above water enabling most of the crew members to abandon ship safely.

USS Nevada beached at Waipoi Point. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

USS Nevada was the only ship in Battleship Row that managed to put up steam during the attack. Despite damage from a torpedo hit she steered around the inferno of the USS Arizona and Vestal with her AA artillery blazing. On her way to the exit of the harbor, she became the main target for the Val dive bombers of the second attack wave, and she received six hits. Because of the hole in the hull, caused by the torpedo, she sank deeper and deeper and she risked sinking in the harbor entrance. By order of the port authorities, the damaged vessel was pushed out of the lane by two tugs and beached at Waipoi Point after which they immediately started extinguishing the fire.

The battlecruisers USS Maryland and Tennessee, moored at the inner ring of Battleship Row were spared much damage as they weren't hit by torpedoes. Both vessels were struck by bombs which caused little damage. The battlecruiser USS Pennsylvania in dry dock was largely spared as well and both bombs inflicted little damage. The old battleship USS Utah (AG-16) which was used as target vessel was at anchor at the other side of Ford Island and capsized after two torpedo hits. The wreck is still there.

The light cruiser USS Helena (CL-50) and the mine layer USS Oglala (CM-4) were berthed side by side at Ten Ten Pier, named after its length of 1,010 feet and both were hit by torpedoes after which Oglala capsized and sank.

Capsized mine layer USS Oglala. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

The repair ship USS Vestal was struck by two bombs and in addition by numerous chunks of wreckage from USS Arizona. Moreover, the vessel caught fire after the explosion aboard Arizona had triggered a massive oil fire. Yet, crew members of the vessel managed to detach her from the doomed battlecruiser and she was beached at Aiea Sands near Ford Island. The light cruisers USS Honolulu (CL-48) and USS Raleigh (CL-7), the seaplane tender USS Curtiss and the destroyer USS Helm suffered little damage from bombs and near misses.

The destroyers USS Cassin and Downes, in the same dock as USS Pennsylvania were struck by one and two bombs respectively. The major damage to the vessels however was caused by the dock being flooded with burning oil floating on the water. it. This caused the destroyers to burn out completely. As the vessels began to float due to the rising water, USS Cassin rolled over and struck USS Downes. The destroyer USS Shaw (DD-373) was laying west of Ten Ten Pier in dry dock and was hit at 09:02 by three bombs that triggered a violent explosion, severely damaging her forecastle and the dock.

Massive damage to aircraft and hangars on Ford Island. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

In addition to aircraft damaged or destroyed on the various air fields, the fields themselves suffered severe damage as well. Most hangars and workshops were destroyed and run- and taxiways were blocked by bomb craters. Numerous vehicles and in particular tankers loaded with fuel were lost and the devastation was immense.

Apart from this physical damage, Pearl Harbor had suffered enormous mental damage as well. The US military on Oahu thought the raid would be followed by an invasion. Everyone on the island was paranoid. In the night of December 7 to 8, a number of aircraft from USS Enterprise was flown in. US anti-aircraft artillery opened fire immediately and a few were downed. Japanese emigrants on the island formed the majority of the population and many of them were suspected of espionage and likely to commit sabotage. After the air raid, suspicion turned to racism and all emigrants and inhabitants of Japanese descent were arrested and locked up in camps on the US mainland.

The damage inflicted on the Pacific Fleet in Pearl Harbor was enormous and the fleet was incapacitated for a long time. And yet, the Americans showed enough resilience to repair the damage quickly. Damage to the airfields was repaired energetically and early 1942, aircraft could be flown in to replace the damaged units. Except for USS Arizona, Oklahoma and Utah all vessels mentioned in the chapter above could be repaired and all could be deployed against the Japanese later in the war.

Much more important however were the targets that had not been hit during the raid. In particular by not launching the third wave, the Japanese missed many chances. The vast oil storage was still intact. Dock yards and dry docks had hardly suffered any damage. After the war, experts stated that the war in the Pacific could have lasted two more years if these targets had been hit after all. The US Navy was now capable to repair the damage to the vessels relatively quickly.

Apart from the 19 warships described above, there were 80 vessels of the Pacific Fleet in Pearl Harbor, including 2 heavy cruisers, 3 light cruisers, 27 destroyers, 4 submarines, 22 mine layers and sweepers and 12 auxiliary vessels. Apart from these vessels, there were dozens of smaller harbor and service boats. All these remained undamaged. Furthermore the submarine base had escaped entirely unscathed as well as the torpedo shops. The buildings of the old HQ remained undamaged and with them, the department that had been busy for a long time cracking the Japanese secret military code.

The submarine base and the fuel storage remained completely unscathed. Source: Wikipedia

The carrier USS Enterprise was spared. Source: Wikipedia

The most important targets the Japanese had missed though, were the 3 carriers and their escort of 6 heavy cruisers and 14 destroyers of the Pacific Fleet. USS Enterprise (CV-6) had been sent to Wake Island on November 8 to deliver 12 Grumman F4F-3 Wildcat fighters. The carrier USS Lexington (CV-2) had been sent to Midway Island on December 5 to deliver 18 Vought SB2U-3 Vindicators. On December 7, USS Saratoga (CV-3) was in San Diego. She had been upgraded on the Puget Sound Navy Yard in Bremerton, Wa. and was in San Diego to take her aircraft aboard.

USS West Virginia in dry dock, June 10, 1942. Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

It goes without saying that a number of American war ships escaped damage because they were in the Atlantic at the time of the raid. Three battlecruisers of the Mexico class, USS New Mexico, Mississippi and USS Idaho, which had been thoroughly upgraded between 1931 and 1934, belonged to this group. The two most modern battleships, USS North Carolina and Washington were making trial runs off the US east coast on December 7. But the oldest battleships were also part of the Atlantic Fleet including USS Arkansas (1911) and USS New York and Texas from 1912. USS Colorado, sistership of Maryland and West Virginia was on the Puget Sound Navy Yard to be upgraded and therefore didn't fall victim to the Japanese.

USS Oklahoma being raised. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

The attacks by the five midgets became a disaster. Two of them were destroyed by the Americans and a third washed up on shore. The fate of the other two is unknown but none of the five A class midgets has reported back to their mother sub and none of them inflicted any damage on the American war ships either.

The minelayer USS Oglala after emergency repairs, December 1942. Source: Wikipedia

During the Second World War, the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor did raise many questions, the most important being: how come America had done nothing against the attack? A large number of Allied commanders, including the Dutch Navy commander in the Dutch East-Indies, vice-Admiral Helfrich considered it weird that the Americans had let themselves be surprised since sources in the Netherlands, Great Britain and other countries had issued warnings, based on intercepted Japanese messages to the effect that a Japanese attack was at hand. Long before the war, Americans, English and Dutch had installed a number of listening posts around the Great Ocean, enabling them to intercept Japanese radio messages. Military messages were radioed in code though and only the number or a sudden increase of those messages could be an indication. This chain of listening posts stretched from Alaska to Singapore and from California to Java and had been given the secret name of Splendid Arrangement.

Many members of the US Congress, mainly Republicans suspected President Roosevelt and his staff of prior knowledge of the attack on Pearl and referred to the existence of Splendid Arrangement. Roosevelt would have allowed the attack to begin because 80 to 90% of the Americans did not back a foreign war. 'President Roosevelt and his staff would rather have had a war against Japan. Then they would easily be backed by the American population in a war against the Axis powers which was after all a matter of life and death, not only for the US herself but for the entire free world, ' so Roosevelt's opponents argued.

President Roosevelt and Admiral Stark. Source: http://worldwar2database

Roosevelt was blamed for having stationed the Pacific Fleet in Pearl Harbor against the advice of Admiral Richardson. His opponents considered it extremely coincidental that the carriers and the most modern battlecruisers were not in Pearl at the time of the attack. Moreover, it was deemed weird that Roosevelt and his staff had ignored warnings from Dutch and British sources which had intercepted Japanese messages about an imminent attack by cracking the Japanese codes. After all, the Americans themselves had made good progress with definitely cracking the Japanese secret military codes.

The wreck of USS Arizona after the attack. Source: Courtesy of Michael W. Pocock

The first investigation into the attack on Pearl Harbor took place between December 9 and 14, 1941. It was headed by the American Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox and preceded eight investigations between 1941 and 1946. The last one was conducted by a Joint Congressional Committee chaired by Senator A.W. Barkley from Kentucky. All these investigations concluded that President Roosevelt and his staff had no prior knowledge because the military code of the Japanese had only been cracked as late as in the spring of 1942. The indications Roosevelt had received about a possible attack on Pearl Harbor were not sufficiently specific as to time and place.

The blame for the failing defense was put on Admiral Kimmel and Lieutenant-general Short. The committee argued they had been neglectful and hadn't sufficiently organized the local defense of Pearl Harbor. Partly out of compassion for Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who had died from a stroke on April 12, 1945, the case was closed. In 1995, a new investigation was conducted by a commission, requested by the next of kin of Kimmel and Short. This reinvestigation toned down the charges against both commanders a little but the most important conclusion wasn't amended.

General Marshall testifies during the Joint Congressional Committee in 1946. Source: http://life.com

Despite the shock caused by the raid and the inherent number of deaths and damage to vessels and aircraft that Roosevelt also felt, it was clear that he was 'very satisfied' as his right hand man Harry Hopkins put it. Japan had fired the first round, had dealt the first blow and therewith had cleared the way for America's entry into the war. This made it far easier for Roosevelt and his staff to support their allies in their struggle against the Axis powers and stop them.

After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Winston Churchill was in an euphoric mood as well. He considered the message about the attack even better news than the message about the German invasion of the Soviet Union. In his memoirs he wrote literally: 'We know that all great Americans around President Roosevelt felt, just like me, the horrible danger of Japan attacking the British and Dutch possessions in the Far East, hereby carefully circumventing the United States and that as a result, Congress wouldn't authorize an Americans declaration of war. The American leaders understood that this could mean extensive Japanese conquests which, should they coincide with a German victory over the Soviet Union and an invasion of Great Britain, would leave America standing alone against an overwhelming combination of triumphant aggressors. Then the great moral values which were at stake wouldn't only be lost but the entire existence of the United States and her population, which was still hardly aware of the imminent danger, would possibly be destroyed. The President and his loyalists have been aware for a long time of the dangers the United States faced by maintaining her neutrality in the war against Hitler and they have suffered deeply from the wait-and-see attitude of Congress of which the House of Representatives only a few months previously had passed a law by a majority of just one vote to reintroduce conscription. Roosevelt and his staff were united in their attitude and future generations of Americans and free peoples in every country will thank God for their vision. An attack by Japan on the United States would mean a massive simplification of their problems and duties. Is it so strange that they that they considered the question of how the attack would take place and even what its scope would be of infinitely less importance than the fact that the entire American population, because of its own security, would be united for a just cause as never before?' Churchill compared the US to a giant boiler: 'Once the fire is lit beneath it, there are no limits to the power it can generate.'

For the military and civilians on Oahu and the American population, the Japanese air raid came like a thunderclap out of a clear blue sky. The attitude of the American population turned around from isolationism to war-readiness and even a call for revenge.

America demands revenge. Source: Wikipedia

Millions of young men were recruited by navy and army and in 1943, the American armed forces numbered no less than seven million men. Millions of women took over the tasks carried out by men in factories and agriculture before they entered service. The American war industry blossomed after December 7 1941, increasing the production of aircraft for example from 6,000 units in 1940 to almost 50,000 in 1942 and even 100,000 towards the end of the war. At the end of 1942, total war production in the US equaled that of Germany, Italy and Japan combined.

As the American carriers had escaped the raid on Pearl Harbor and the Japanese codes had been deciphered, the Americans could prevent New Guinea from being occupied by Japan in the Battle of the Coral Sea between May 6 and 8, 1942. In so doing, they probably prevented an invasion of Australia. Occupation of the strategic important islands of Midway and probably of Hawaii could be stopped a month later during the Battle of Midway. During this battle, the Japanese had lost four important carriers and suffered their first massive defeat against the Americans.

The midget submarine that had been washed up on Oahu was displayed to the public in the entire United States as some sort of trophy. The veterans of USS Ward however, never earned the credits they deserved for having sunk one of the other midgets. Their findings were swept under the rug as these made clear that the Americans had fired the first round and had caused the first Japanese victims.

The washed up midget submarine on display in Fredericksburg, Texas, 1943. Source: http://worldwar2database

The destroyer USS Ward fired the first shot in the war between America and Japan. Source: Wikipedia

On August 28, 2002, the wreck of an A class midget was discovered by a diving team of the Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL) at 3.5 miles from the entrance to Pearl Harbor at a depth of well over 1,214 feet. Two deep sea devices, Pisces IV and V took pictures of the sunken vessel. At the base of the conning tower there was a hole some 4 inches in diameter, exactly on the spot where the crew of the Ward had reported the hit of the second shell that hadn't exploded. The wreck of the midget, with the remains of the two-man crew still inside, remains a war grave for the time being and the crew of USS Ward has been fully exonerated in the meantime.

Pisces V examines the wreck of the midget sub sunk by USS Ward. Source: https://www.soest.hawaii.edu/soestwp/

In 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized the erection of a monument over the wreck of USS Arizona Herewith he stipulated immediately that the physical remains of the victims remain inside the wreckage, definitely cutting off the discussion on the subject. Three years later, construction of the Arizona Memorial was completed and it was inaugurated in 1962. The monument is placed above the midship of the vessel and contains a wall of white marble with the names of the crew members who had lost their lives. Over a million visitors are taken to the memorial in small boats each year. The wreck of USS Arizona is still leaking oil and veterans of the attack on Pearl consider this a sign of life of the vessel. Environmental organizations want to put a stop to the pollution of the harbor and the surrounding waters and rather see the oil be removed from the ship. The government of the State of Hawaii has decided however to do this only after the last veteran of December 7 has passed away.

The USS Arizona Memorial. Source: Wikipedia

From a Japanese point of view, the attack on Pearl Harbor was a major tactical victory that cleared the way for more conquests. The strategic thinking of the Japanese still assumed that the war in the Pacific would be decided in one or more engagements between battlecruisers. Knocking out the battleships in Pearl Harbor was therefore considered a successful start of a just strategy.
Battleships however would no longer play a primary role in the further course of the Second World War. Carriers became the most important units within the battlefleets and battlecruisers would be allocated less spectacular tasks such as escorting convoys, supporting amphibious landings and coastal bombardments. Precisely the success of the raid on Pearl Harbor demonstrated the vulnerability of battlecruisers against attacks from the air. In hindsight, even Admiral Yamamoto had to admit that the attack on Pearl Harbor had actually been superfluous. Even without this attack, the Japanese could have carried out their conquests at the end of 1941 and early 1942.

Most of the members of the Japanese army and navy command were convinced that the war industry of the US would eventually outclass that of Japan. This made it impossible for Japan to win a war in the long run. Based on their sense of duty and loyalty to the Emperor, they carried out their tasks anyway but at the same time they realized the attack on Pearl Harbor had set a war machine in motion that could no longer be stopped. The Japanese admiral Hara Taidaichi has summarized this very well by saying: 'In Pearl Harbor we have scored a large tactical victory and with it, we have lost the war'.